By Damilola Obanijesu Oyawole
The coronavirus disease 19 (COVID – 19), a highly transmittable and pathogenic viral infection caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in Wuhan, the capital of Hubei Province in People’s Republic of China late last year.
On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared the virus a global pandemic. This led to a seismic shift in commercial activities as businesses were shut down, movements were halted and every individual had to imbibe a work-from-home system. All these measures were put in place to assuage the overarching effects of the pandemic.
Indubitably, the pandemic has left most contractual obligations unfulfilled, as most parties are unwilling to carry out their various undertaken obligations. What is the position of the law on commercial transactions?, Can a party to a contract renege on his promise because of difficulty in performance?, When is a contract deemed impossible to perform?
The doctrine of frustration and of force majeure are imperative on this note.
The Doctrine of Frustration
Frustration as a contract law doctrine has its roots in English laws. Due to Nigeria’s historical link with Great Britain, English law has become a major source of its law. Ergo, the doctrine of frustration enjoys judicial reception in Nigeria. Frustration acts as a device to set aside contracts where an unforeseen event either renders contractual obligations impossible, or radically changes the party’s principal purpose for entering into the contract. The doctrine of frustration as it relates to contracts is defined in Black’s Law Dictionary 9th Edition at page 740 as, ‘the doctrine that if a party’s principal purpose is substantially frustrated by unanticipated changed circumstances, the party’s duties are discharged and the contract is considered terminated.’
In JACOB v AFAHA (2012) LPELR-7854 (CA), the Court of Appeal, per Ndukwe Anyanwu, JCA defined ‘Frustration’ as ‘the premature determination of an agreement between parties, lawfully entered into and which is in the cause of operation at the time of its premature determination, owing to the occurrence of an intervening event, or change of circumstances so fundamental as to be regarded by law both as striking the root of the agreement, and as entirely beyond what was contemplated by the parties when they entered into the agreement. – (Emphasis mine). See also NONSPECTO OIL & GAS LTD v KENNEY & ORS (2014) LPELR – 23628 (CA); WECO ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION CO. LTD v DUFAN (NIG) LTD & ANOR (2019) LPELR – 47211 (CA); MAZIN ENGINEERING LTD v TOWER ALUMINIUM (NIG) LTD (1993) 5 NWLR (Pt. 295) 526 at 534.
Simply put, a contract is frustrated when an intervening event terminates its lifespan by causing an impossibility of performance or a radical change in performance of obligations from that contemplated, anticipated or augured by parties to the contract.
A contract is not prima facie frustrated because of disappointments or hardships which inhibit performance of certain obligations. Ergo, not all situations or circumstances lead to a contract being frustrated. The bane of a contract as it relates to frustration depends on whether the obligations of parties are incapable of being performed so much so that its performance would lead to something entirely different from what the parties were agreed to.
In NWAOLISAH v NWABUFOH (2011) 6 (Pt. 11) MJSC 80 at 84, the Supreme Court pontificated certain situations or circumstances that may constitute frustration of a contract: (a) subsequent legal changes or statutory impossibility (b) outbreak of war (c) destruction of the subject matter of the contract or literal impossibility (d) government acquisition acquisition of the subject matter of the contract (e) cancellation of an expected event. See also A.G. CROSS RIVER STATE v A.G. FEDERATION & ANOR (2012) LPELR – 9335 (SC); OBAYUWANA v GOVERNOR OF BENDEL STATE (1982) 12 S.C; DIAMOND BANK LTD v UGOCHUKWU (2008) 1 NWLR (Pt. 1067) per Rhodes-Vivour, JCA (as he then was).
In determining whether a contract has been frustrated, the courts have therefore adopted an objective test.
The Doctrine of Force Majeure
Force majeure is a French term that literally means ‘greater force.’ It is a clause that is included in contracts to remove liability for natural and unavoidable catastrophes that interrupt the expected course of events and prevent participants from fulfilling obligations. The Black’s Law Dictionary 9th Edition defines ‘force majeure’ as ‘an event or effect that can neither be anticipated nor controlled. It involves both natural and human acts. The human acts may be political in nature, including riots, strikes or war.’
A force majeure clause provides temporary reprieve to a party from performing its obligations under a contract upon occurrence of a force majeure event. It typically spells out specific circumstances or events, which would qualify as force majeure events, conditions which would be fulfilled for such force majeure clause to apply to the contract and the consequences of occurrence of such force majeure event.
A force majeure clause must be included in a contract for a party to invoke it. It is stricto censu a contractual provision as parties are left to delineate what it should contain. See FEDERAL MINISTRY OF HEALTH v URASHI PHARMACEUTICALS LTD (2018) LPELR – 46189 (CA); GOLD LINK INSURANCE COMPANY LTD v PETROLEUM (SPECIAL) TRUST FUND (2008) LPELR – 4211 (CA).
Typically, force majeure provisions would include acts of God, fires, earthquakes, natural disasters, outbreak of diseases, epidemics and pandemics. The effect of a force majeure clause is that it temporarily absolves parties to a contract of their obligations for that period of time which the force majeure events occur.
Differences between Frustration and Force Majeure
Although the doctrine of frustration and the doctrine of force majeure are akin, they are not coterminous as there exist certain discrepancies:
- Whilst the courts may determine whether a commercial purpose has been frustrated by a frustrating event, a party seeking to rely on force majeure must adduce evidence to show that the force majeure clause is included as a term of the
- The Supreme Court in NWAOLISAH v NWABUFOH, (SUPRA) has stated certain circumstances that may constitute frustration of a contract, whereas the applicability of a force majeure clause is largely dependent on the specific
- Whilst a finding of a supervening act by the court renders a contract frustrated thereby discharging the parties of future obligations, the force majeure serves to provide a temporary reprieve during the time frame of the force majeure However, some contracts may provide that should the force majeure event subsist for more than a certain period of time, the affected party may elect to terminate the contract.
Legal Implications of the Doctrines in the Context of COVID – 19 Pandemic
As initially stated, whether a contract has been discharged by frustration is a question of fact to be determined and decided by the courts. It is therefore not the parties that would determine whether an event constitutes frustrating event. In most cases, whilst a party contends that an event has operated to frustrate the contract, the other party contends otherwise. See WECO ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION CO. LTD v DUFAN (NIG) LTD & ANOR, (SUPRA). This, however, is not the case for a contract containing a force majeure clause as parties are left to spell out certain circumstances which would qualify as force majeure events in the terms of the contract.
The post-pandemic effect would most likely result in actions for breach of contractual obligations. A party may rely on the doctrine of frustration as a defense. Such party must however, specifically prove impossibility of performance. For he who asserts must prove ( Affirmati non neganti incumbit probatio). See ONUIGBO v AZUBIKE (2013) LPELR – 22796 (CA), S. 136(1) of the Evidence Act. The onus of proving that a contract has been frustrated rests on the party seeking to rely on it. See C.B. v ONYEKWELU (1999) 10 NWLR (Pt. 623) 452, per Niki Tobi JCA (as he then was). He must adduce evidence that the contract has been frustrated, to wit:
- An impossibility of The supervening event(the pandemic) must totally affect the nature, meaning, purpose, effect and consequence of the contract in so far as it concerns either or both parties. See KADURA FURNITURE & CARPETS COMPANY LTD (2016) LPELR – 41308 (CA)
- A nexus between the impossibility of performance and the frustrating event(the pandemic). See WECO ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION LTD v DUFAN (NIG) LTD & ANOR, (SUPRA)
- He did all he could to perform his obligations but See GOLD LINK INSURANCE COMPANY LTD v PETROLEUM (SPECIAL) TRUST FUND, (SUPRA)
It must be stated that, for the courts to discharge a contract by frustration recourse must be made to whether there is a radical change in performance of obligations from that which is originally obtainable from the agreement. Whether the pandemic has affected the ability to perform the obligations of a contract must be based on the facts and circumstances of the case as not all contracts may be rendered impossible by the pandemic.
A party seeking to rely on a force majeure clause must prove the existence of a force majeure clause in the terms of the contract, this is because, a fundamental principle of the law of contract is that for a contract to be regarded as legally binding and enforceable, parties must reach a consensus ad idem in respect of terms of same. The burden of proof of the existence of terms of an agreement rests squarely on the party asserting such terms since it is a matter of evidence. He must also consider the clause to see if the pandemic falls within the ambit of same and lead evidence to prove that the contract has been rendered impossible to perform and that the effect of the pandemic was unforeseeable. If a force majeure clause is wide enough to embrace the pandemic, then the party seeking to invoke the force majeure clause must make sure he strictly complies with all preconditions stated therein before invoking same.
In a situation where a force majeure clause does not prima facie include a pandemic, then the party seeking to invoke the force majeure must aver that a pandemic comes within the purview of the clause. This is why the courts usually interpret a force majeure clause using the ejusdem generis rule.
Partial Performance, Substantial Performance and Quantum Meruit
There are a plethora of remedies available to a party to a contract discharged by frustration.
- Partial Performance
In an instance where a contract is divisible or separable, it may be possible for one party to insist on being paid for any of those obligations that have been completed even though there exist unperformed outstanding obligations. For instance, in a contract for supply of three trucks of cement seriatim, each supply may be treated as a separate and distinct contract under the larger contract. Accordingly, the supplier is entitled to payment for each supply and therefore, is entitled to payment for a supply in the event that he is unable to deliver all trucks of cement.
It is also imperative to note that although a contract may have several terms, it must be the intention of the parties that determines whether it is to be treated as an entire contract or as a separable one. See JACKIE PHILLIPS v ARCO LTD (PHARMACO BIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE) (1971) LPELR – SC.149/1969, per Lewis, J.S.C. (P. 16, paras. A-B); VIGERS v COOK (1919) 2 K.B. 475.
- Substantial Performance
Where a party to a contract is able to perform a contract substantially, he will be entitled to recover less the defect. This means that where a party has contracted to perform certain obligations in a contract, the courts would normally look at the contract as a whole and decide if the contract has been performed substantially although there exist certain defects or unperformed obligations. See EWUNIFE v WAYNE (W/A) LTD (1989) 5 NWLR (Pt. 122) 422.
However, where parties to a contract have stated in the terms of a contract that total performance is a precondition for payment, the court would normally give effect to same.
What would constitute substantial performance is a question of fact to be decided by the courts.
- Quantum Meruit
The Latin phrase Quantum Meruit simply means ‘as he has earned.’ It is an equitable remedy to provide restitution for unjust enrichment. Where a party to a contract is unable to fulfill the entire obligation because of a supervening event but has fulfilled a part, he may have a claim in quantum meruit. See S.B.N. PLC v OPANUBI (2004) 15 NWLR (Pt.896) 437, per Uwaifo, J.S.C. (P.19, paras. B-C); OLAOPA v O.A.U., ILE IFE (1997) 7 NWLR (Pt.512) 204, (P. 221, paras. F-H)
To recover under quantum meruit one must show that: (x) the recipient acquiesced in the provision of services; (y) the recipient was aware that the provider expected to be compensated; and (z) was justly enriched thereby.
Conclusion
It is apparent that the COVID – 19 has blighted commercial transactions and in extension caused several unfulfilled undertaken obligations. It is more probable than not that a failure to fulfill undertaken obligations may lead to a breakdown in relationship and in its place a suit for breach of contract. It is therefore left to the defendant to prove whether a contract has been frustrated by the pandemic. Also, a party to a contract containing a force majeure clause should invoke same forthwith after complying with the preconditions stated therein.
Due to the sudden lockdown and cessation in business activities, most contracts may have been partially performed, it is therefore left for the courts to determine through the terms or construction of a contract whether a contract is severable or divisible, whether a contract has been substantially performed and the assessment of a claim for quantum meruit based on evidence adduced.
DAMILOLA OBANIJESU OYAWOLE writes from Faculty of Law, University of Ilorin.
09033182827 or [email protected].
PS.
The information provided in this write-up is an academic exposition. It does not, and is not intended to constitute legal advice; the information contained herein are for general information purposes only. Whilst, reasonable steps were taken to ensure the accuracy of information contained herein, all liabilities that may arise from reliance on information contained in this write-up are hereby expressly disclaimed. Readers of this write-up should contact their solicitors to obtain advice with respect to any legal matter.
REFERENCES
- Pius Owhoavwodua and Theodora Olumekor, The Impact Of The COVID-19 Pandemic On Commercial Contracts: The Imperative Of A Force Majeure Clause, available at:https://www.mondaq.com/nigeria/litigation-contracts-and-force-majeure/933002/the-impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-commercial-contractsthe-imperative-of-a-force-majeure-clause
- https://wigweandpartners.com/news/2020/04/02/the-effect-of-covid-19-pandemic-on-contractractual-obligations-in-a-contract/
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- Poorvi Sanjanwala and Kashmira Bakliwal, What is force majeure? The legal term everyone should know during Covid-19 crisis, available at:https://m.economictimes.com/small-biz/legal/what-is-force-majeure-the-legal-term-everyone-should-know-during-covid-19-crisis/articleshow/75152196.cms
- https://www.oraro.co.ke/2020/04/14/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-commercial-transactions-invoking-force-majeure-and-frustration-in-contracts/
- https://www.lawsonlundell.com/china-blog/force-majeure-vs-frustration-of-contracts
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